Gruber, N., Boyd, P. W., Frölicher, T. L. & Vogt, M. Biogeochemical extremes and compound events in the ocean. Nature 600, 395–407 (2021).
Schmidtko, S., Stramma, L. & Visbeck, M. Decline in global oceanic oxygen content during the past five decades. Nature 542, 335–339 (2017).
Breitburg, D. et al. Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters. Science 359, eaam7240 (2018).
Ito, T., Minobe, S., Long, M. C. & Deutsch, C. Upper ocean O2 trends: 1958–2015. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 4214–4223 (2017).
Helm, K. P., Bindoff, N. L. & Church, J. A. Observed decreases in oxygen content of the global ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L23602 (2011).
Oschlies, A. A committed fourfold increase in ocean oxygen loss. Nat. Commun. 12, 2307 (2021).
Levin, L. A. & Le Bris, N. The deep ocean under climate change. Science 350, 766–768 (2015).
Keeling, R. E., Kortzinger, A. & Gruber, N. Ocean deoxygenation in a warming world. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2, 199–229 (2010).
Gong, H., Li, C. & Zhou, Y. Emerging global ocean deoxygenation across the 21st century. Geophys. Res. Lett. 48, e2021GL095370 (2021).
Levin, L. A. Manifestation, drivers, and emergence of open ocean deoxygenation. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 10, 229–260 (2018).
Oschlies, A., Brandt, P., Stramma, L. & Schmidtko, S. Drivers and mechanisms of ocean deoxygenation. Nat. Geosci. 11, 467–473 (2018).
Long, M. C., Deutsch, C. & Ito, T. Finding forced trends in oceanic oxygen. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 30, 381–397 (2016).
Stramma, L., Oschlies, A. & Schmidtko, S. Mismatch between observed and modeled trends in dissolved upper-ocean oxygen over the last 50 yr. Biogeosciences 9, 4045–4057 (2012).
Arroyo, A., Timmermans, M.-L., Le Bras, I., Williams, W. & Zimmermann, S.Declining O2 in the Canada Basin halocline consistent with physical and biogeochemical effects of Pacific Summer Water warming. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 128, e2022JC019418 (2023).
Gunn, K. L., Rintoul, S. R., England, M. H. & Bowen, M. M. Recent reduced abyssal overturning and ventilation in the Australian Antarctic Basin. Nat. Clim. Change 13, 537–544 (2023).
Evans, N., Schroeder, I. D., Pozo Buil, M., Jacox, M. G. & Bograd, S. J. Drivers of subsurface deoxygenation in the Southern California Current System. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, e2020GL089274 (2020).
Smith, K. L., Messié, M., Connolly, T. P. & Huffard, C. L. Decadal time‐series depletion of dissolved oxygen at abyssal depths in the Northeast Pacific. Geophys. Res. Lett. 49, e2022GL101018 (2022).
Takano, Y., Ito, T. & Deutsch, C. Projected centennial oxygen trends and their attribution to distinct ocean climate forcings. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 32, 1329–1349 (2018).
Stramma, L., Johnson, G. C., Sprintall, J. & Mohrholz, V. Expanding oxygen-minimum zones in the tropical oceans. Science 320, 655–658 (2008).
Qi, D. et al. Increase in acidifying water in the western Arctic Ocean. Nat. Clim. Change 7, 195–199 (2017).
Polyakov, I. V. et al. Borealization of the Arctic Ocean in response to anomalous advection from Sub-Arctic Seas. Front. Mar. Sci. 7, 00491 (2020).
Rantanen, M. et al. The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979. Commun. Earth Environ. 3, 168 (2022).
Shu, Q. et al. Arctic ocean amplification in a warming climate in CMIP6 models. Sci. Adv. 8, eabn9755 (2022).
Parkinson, C. L. & DiGirolamo, N. E. Sea ice extents continue to set new records: Arctic, Antarctic, and global results. Remote Sens. Environ. 267, 112753 (2021).
Giles, K. A., Laxon, S. W., Ridout, A. L., Wingham, D. J. & Bacon, S. Western Arctic Ocean freshwater storage increased by wind-driven spin-up of the Beaufort Gyre. Nat. Geosci. 5, 194–197 (2012).
Shu, Q., Qiao, F., Song, Z., Zhao, J. & Li, X. Projected freshening of the Arctic Ocean in the 21st century. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 123, 9232–9244 (2018).
Polyakov, I. V. et al. Greater role for Atlantic inflows on sea-ice loss in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Science 356, 285–291 (2017).
Polyakov, I. V. et al. Fluctuating Atlantic inflows modulate Arctic atlantification. Science 381, 972–979 (2023).
Ingvaldsen, R. B. et al. Physical manifestations and ecological implications of Arctic atlantification. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 2, 874–889 (2021).
Jung, J. et al. Atlantic-origin cold saline water intrusion and shoaling of the nutricline in the Pacific Arctic. Geophys. Res. Lett. 48, e2020GL090907 (2021).
Woodgate, R. A., Weingartner, T. J. & Lindsay, R. Observed increases in Bering Strait oceanic fluxes from the Pacific to the Arctic from 2001 to 2011 and their impacts on the Arctic Ocean water column. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L24603 (2012).
Woodgate, R. & Peralta‐Ferriz, C. Warming and freshening of the Pacific inflow to the Arctic from 1990–2019 implying dramatic shoaling in Pacific winter water ventilation of the Arctic water column. Geophys. Res. Lett. 48, e2021GL092528 (2021).
Timmermans, M. L. & Marshall, J. Understanding Arctic Ocean circulation: a review of ocean dynamics in a changing climate. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 125, e2018JC014378 (2020).
Wang, Q. et al. A review of Arctic–Subarctic Ocean linkages: past changes, mechanisms, and future projections. Ocean Land Atmos. Res. 2, 0013 (2023).
Sharp, J. D. et al. GOBAI-O2: temporally and spatially resolved fields of ocean interior dissolved oxygen over nearly 2 decades. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 15, 4481–4518 (2023).
Ito, T., Cervania, A., Cross, K., Ainchwar, S. & Delawalla, S. Mapping dissolved oxygen concentrations by combining shipboard and Argo observations using machine learning algorithms. J. Geophys. Res. Mach. Learn. Comput. 1, e2024JH000272 (2024).
Noh, K. M., Oh, J. H., Lim, H. G., Song, H. & Kug, J. S. Role of atlantification in enhanced primary productivity in the Barents Sea. Earths Future 12, e2023EF003709 (2024).
Polyakov, I. V. et al. Atlantification advances into the Amerasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Sci. Adv. 11, eadq7580 (2025).
Qi, D. et al. Rapid acidification of the Arctic Chukchi Sea waters driven by anthropogenic forcing and biological carbon recycling. Geophys. Res. Lett. 51, e2024GL109986 (2024).
Tanhua, T. et al. Ventilation of the Arctic Ocean: mean ages and inventories of anthropogenic CO2 and CFC-11. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 114, C01002 (2009).
Tamura, T. & Ohshima, K. I. Mapping of sea ice production in the Arctic coastal polynyas. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 116, C07030 (2011).
Hirano, D. et al. Winter water formation in coastal polynyas of the eastern Chukchi Shelf: Pacific and Atlantic influences. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 123, 5688–5705 (2018).
Smethie, W. M., Schlosser, P., Bönisch, G. & Hopkins, T. S. Renewal and circulation of intermediate waters in the Canadian Basin observed on the SCICEX 96 cruise. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 105, 1105–1121 (2000).
Wefing, A.-M., Casacuberta, N., Christl, M., Gruber, N. & Smith, J. N. Circulation timescales of Atlantic Water in the Arctic Ocean determined from anthropogenic radionuclides. Ocean Sci. 17, 111–129 (2021).
Zhong, W. & Zhao, J. Deepening of the Atlantic Water Core in the Canada Basin in 2003–11. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 44, 2353–2369 (2014).
Broecker, W. S. & Peng, T. H. Gas exchange rates between air and sea. Tellus 26, 21–35 (1974).
Broecker, W. S. The great ocean conveyor. Oceanography 4, 79–89 (1991).
Ohashi, Y., Yamamoto-Kawai, M., Kusahara, K., Sasaki, K. I. & Ohshima, K. I. Age distribution of Antarctic Bottom Water off Cape Darnley, East Antarctica, estimated using chlorofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride. Sci. Rep. 12, 8462 (2022).
Silvano, A. et al. Observing Antarctic Bottom Water in the Southern Ocean. Front. Mar. Sci. 10, 1221701 (2023).
Qi, D. et al. Climate change drives rapid decadal acidification in the Arctic Ocean from 1994 to 2020. Science 377, 1544–1550 (2022).
Polyakov, I. V. et al. Fate of early 2000s Arctic warm water pulse. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 92, 561–566 (2011).
Lauvset, S. K. et al. The annual update GLODAPv2.2023: the global interior ocean biogeochemical data product. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 16, 2047–2072 (2024).
Dickson, A. G. Determination of Dissolved Oxygen in Sea Water by Winkler Titration WOCE Report No. 68/91 (World Ocean Circulation Experiment, 1996); https://cchdo.github.io/hdo-assets/documentation/manuals/pdf/91_1/dickson2.pdf
Lauvset, S. K. & Tanhua, T. A toolbox for secondary quality control on ocean chemistry and hydrographic data. Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods 13, 601–608 (2015).
Jutterström, S. et al. Arctic Ocean data in CARINA. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 2, 71–78 (2010).
Yamamoto-Kawai, M., McLaughlin, F. A., Carmack, E. C., Nishino, S. & Shimada, K. Aragonite undersaturation in the Arctic Ocean: effects of ocean acidification and sea ice melt. Science 326, 1098–1100 (2009).
Steele, M. et al. Circulation of summer Pacific halocline water in the Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 109, C02027 (2004).
Garcia, H. E. & Gordon, L. I. Oxygen solubility in seawater: better fitting equations. Limnol. Oceanogr. 37, 1307–1312 (1992).
Redfield, A. C., Ketchum, B. H. & Richards, F. A. The influence of organisms on the composition of sea-water. Sea 2, 26–77 (1963).
Martiny, A. C. et al. Strong latitudinal patterns in the elemental ratios of marine plankton and organic matter. Nat. Geosci. 6, 279–283 (2013).
Tanioka, T. et al. Global patterns and predictors of C:N:P in marine ecosystems. Commun. Earth Environ. 3, 271 (2022).
DeVries, T. & Deutsch, C. Large-scale variations in the stoichiometry of marine organic matter respiration. Nat. Geosci. 7, 890–894 (2014).
Arrigo, K. R., Mills, M. M. & Juranek, L. W. The Arctic Ocean nitrogen cycle. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 129, e2024JG008088 (2024).
Emerson, S. & Bushinsky, S. The role of bubbles during air–sea gas exchange. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 121, 4360–4376 (2016).
MacKinnon, J. A. et al. A warm jet in a cold ocean. Nat. Commun. 12, 2418 (2021).
Lin, P., Pickart, R. S., Våge, K. & Li, J. Fate of warm Pacific water in the Arctic Basin. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021gl094693 (2021).
Lin, P. et al. Recent state transition of the Arctic Ocean’s Beaufort Gyre. Nat. Geosci. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01184-5 (2023).
Jones, E. P. & Anderson, L. G. On the origin of the chemical properties of the Arctic Ocean halocline. J. Geophys. Res. 91, 10759–10767 (1986).
Shimada, K. et al. Halocline structure in the Canada Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021358 (2005).
Sutton, A. J. et al. Advancing best practices for assessing trends of ocean acidification time series. Front. Mar. Sci. 9, 1045667 (2022).
Zhang, Y. et al. Sea-ice loss accelerates carbon cycling and enhances seasonal extremes of acidification in the Arctic Chukchi Sea. Limnol. Oceanogr. Lett. 9, 433–441 (2024).
Ouyang, Z. et al. Sea-ice loss amplifies summertime decadal CO2 increase in the western Arctic Ocean. Nat. Clim. Change 10, 678–684 (2020).
Takahashi, T. et al. Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea–air CO2 flux over the global oceans. Deep Sea Res. II 56, 554–577 (2009).
Wu, Y., Zheng, Z. & Chen, L. Dissolved oxygen in the Canada Basin of the Arctic Ocean during 1994–2021, V2. Mendeley Data https://doi.org/10.17632/stf5xc7hb6.2 (2025).